The Elm Architecture

This tutorial outlines “The Elm Architecture” which you will see in all Elm programs, from TodoMVC and dreamwriter to the code running in production at NoRedInk and CircuitHub. The basic pattern is useful whether you are writing your front-end in Elm or JS or whatever else.

The Elm Architecture is a simple pattern for infinitely nestable components. It is great for modularity, code reuse, and testing. Ultimately, this pattern makes it easy to create complex web apps in a way that stays modular. We will run through 8 examples, slowly building on core principles and patterns:

1. Counter
2. Pair of counters
3. List of counters
4. List of counters (variation)
5. GIF fetcher
6. Pair of GIF fetchers
7. List of GIF fetchers
8. Pair of animating squares

This tutorial will really help! It will bring out the concepts and ideas necessary to get to make examples 7 and 8 super easy. Investing in the foundation will be worth it!

One very interesting aspect of the architecture in all these programs is that it emerges from Elm naturally. The language design itself leads you towards this architecture whether you have read this document and know the benefits or not. I actually discovered this pattern just using Elm and have been shocked by its simplicity and power.

Note: To follow along with this tutorial with code, install Elm and fork this repo. Each example in the tutorial gives instructions of how to run the code.

The Basic Pattern

The logic of every Elm program will break up into three cleanly separated parts:

• model
• update
• view

You can pretty reliably start with the following skeleton and then iteratively fill in details for your particular case.

If you are new to reading Elm code, check out the language docs which covers everything from syntax to getting into a “functional mindset”. The first two sections of the complete guide will get you up to speed!

-- MODEL

type alias Model = { ... }


-- UPDATE

type Action = Reset | ...

update : Action -> Model -> Model
update action model =
  case action of
    Reset -> ...
    ...


-- VIEW

view : Model -> Html
view =
  ...

This tutorial is all about this pattern and small variations and extensions.

Example 1: A Counter

demo / see code

Our first example is a simple counter that can be incremented or decremented.

The code starts with a very simple model. We just need to keep track of a single number:

type alias Model = Int

When it comes to updating our model, things are relatively simple again. We define a set of actions that can be performed, and an update function to actually perform those actions:

type Action = Increment | Decrement

update : Action -> Model -> Model
update action model =
  case action of
    Increment -> model + 1
    Decrement -> model - 1

Notice that our Action union type does not do anything. It simply describes the actions that are possible. If someone decides our counter should be doubled when a certain button is pressed, that will be a new case in Action. This means our code ends up very clear about how our model can be transformed. Anyone reading this code will immediately know what is allowed and what is not. Furthermore, they will know exactly how to add new features in a consistent way.

Finally, we create a way to view our Model. We are using elm-html to create some HTML to show in a browser. We will create a div that contains: a decrement button, a div showing the current count, and an increment button.

view : Signal.Address Action -> Model -> Html
view address model =
  div []
    [ button [ onClick address Decrement ] [ text "-" ]
    , div [ countStyle ] [ text (toString model) ]
    , button [ onClick address Increment ] [ text "+" ]
    ]

countStyle : Attribute
countStyle =
  ...

The tricky thing about our view function is the Address. We will dive into that in the next section! For now, I just want you to notice that this code is entirely declarative. We take in a Model and produce some Html. That is it. At no point do we mutate the DOM manually, which gives the library much more freedom to make clever optimizations and actually makes rendering faster overall. It is crazy. Furthermore, view is a plain old function so we can get the full power of Elm’s module system, test frameworks, and libraries when creating views.

This pattern is the essence of architecting Elm programs. Every example we see from now on will be a slight variation on this basic pattern: Model, update, view.

Starting the Program

Pretty much all Elm programs will have a small bit of code that drives the whole application. For each example in this tutorial, that code is broken out into Main.elm. For our counter example, the interesting code looks like this:

import Counter exposing (update, view)
import StartApp.Simple exposing (start)

main =
  start { model = 0, update = update, view = view }

We are using the StartApp package to wire together our initial model with the update and view functions. It is a small wrapper around Elm's signals so that you do not need to dive into that concept yet.

The key to wiring up your application is the concept of an Address. Every event handler in our view function reports to a particular address. It just sends chunks of data along. The StartApp package monitors all the messages coming in to this address and feeds them into the update function. The model gets updated and elm-html takes care of rendering the changes efficiently.

This means values flow through an Elm program in only one direction, something like this:

The blue part is our core Elm program which is exactly the model/update/view pattern we have been discussing so far. When programming in Elm, you can mostly think inside this box and make great progress.

Notice we are not performing actions as they get sent back to our app. We are simply sending some data over. This separation is a key detail, keeping our logic totally separate from our view code.

Example 2: A Pair of Counters

demo / see code

In example 1 we created a basic counter, but how does that pattern scale when we want two counters? Can we keep things modular?

Wouldn't it be great if we could reuse all the code from example 1? The crazy thing about the Elm Architecture is that we can reuse code with absolutely no changes. When we created the Counter module in example one, it encapsulated all the implementation details so we can use them elsewhere:

module Counter (Model, init, Action, update, view) where

type Model

init : Int -> Model

type Action

update : Action -> Model -> Model

view : Signal.Address Action -> Model -> Html

Creating modular code is all about creating strong abstractions. We want boundaries which appropriately expose functionality and hide implementation. From outside of the Counter module, we just see a basic set of values: Model, init, Action, update, and view. We do not care at all how these things are implemented. In fact, it is impossible to know how these things are implemented. This means no one can rely on implementation details that were not made public.

So we can reuse our Counter module, but now we need to use it to create our CounterPair. As always, we start with a Model:

type alias Model =
    { topCounter : Counter.Model
    , bottomCounter : Counter.Model
    }

init : Int -> Int -> Model
init top bottom =
    { topCounter = Counter.init top
    , bottomCounter = Counter.init bottom
    }

Our Model is a record with two fields, one for each of the counters we would like to show on screen. This fully describes all of the application state. We also have an init function to create a new Model whenever we want.

Next we describe the set of Actions we would like to support. This time our features should be: reset all counters, update the top counter, or update the bottom counter.

type Action
    = Reset
    | Top Counter.Action
    | Bottom Counter.Action

Notice that our union type refers to the Counter.Action type, but we do not know the particulars of those actions. When we create our update function, we are mainly routing these Counter.Actions to the right place:

update : Action -> Model -> Model
update action model =
  case action of
    Reset -> init 0 0

    Top act ->
      { model |
          topCounter = Counter.update act model.topCounter
      }

    Bottom act ->
      { model |
          bottomCounter = Counter.update act model.bottomCounter
      }

So now the final thing to do is create a view function that shows both of our counters on screen along with a reset button.

view : Signal.Address Action -> Model -> Html
view address model =
  div []
    [ Counter.view (Signal.forwardTo address Top) model.topCounter
    , Counter.view (Signal.forwardTo address Bottom) model.bottomCounter
    , button [ onClick address Reset ] [ text "RESET" ]
    ]

Notice that we are able to reuse the Counter.view function for both of our counters. For each counter we create a forwarding address. Essentially what we are doing here is saying, “these counters will tag all outgoing messages with Top or Bottom so we can tell the difference.”

That is the whole thing. The cool thing is that we can keep nesting more and more. We can take the CounterPair module, expose the key values and functions, and create a CounterPairPair or whatever it is we need.

Example 3: A Dynamic List of Counters

demo / see code

A pair of counters is cool, but what about a list of counters where we can add and remove counters as we see fit? Can this pattern work for that too?

Again we can reuse the Counter module exactly as it was in example 1 and 2!

module Counter (Model, init, Action, update, view)

That means we can just get started on our CounterList module. As always, we begin with our Model:

type alias Model =
    { counters : List ( ID, Counter.Model )
    , nextID : ID
    }

type alias ID = Int

Now our model has a list of counters, each annotated with a unique ID. These IDs allow us to distinguish between them, so if we need to update counter number 4 we have a nice way to refer to it. (This ID also gives us something convenient to key on when we are thinking about optimizing rendering, but that is not the focus of this tutorial!) Our model also contains a nextID which helps us assign unique IDs to each counter as we add new ones.

Now we can define the set of Actions that can be performed on our model. We want to be able to add counters, remove counters, and update certain counters.

type Action
    = Insert
    | Remove
    | Modify ID Counter.Action

Our Action union type is shockingly close to the high-level description. Now we can define our update function.

update : Action -> Model -> Model
update action model =
  case action of
    Insert ->
      let newCounter = ( model.nextID, Counter.init 0 )
          newCounters = model.counters ++ [ newCounter ]
      in
          { model |
              counters = newCounters,
              nextID = model.nextID + 1
          }

    Remove ->
      { model | counters = List.drop 1 model.counters }

    Modify id counterAction ->
      let updateCounter (counterID, counterModel) =
            if counterID == id
                then (counterID, Counter.update counterAction counterModel)
                else (counterID, counterModel)
      in
          { model | counters = List.map updateCounter model.counters }

Here is a high-level description of each case:

• Insert — First we create a new counter and put it at the end of our counter list. Then we increment our nextID so that we have a fresh ID next time around.

• Remove — Drop the first member of our counter list.

• Modify — Run through all of our counters. If we find one with a matching ID, we perform the given Action on that counter.

All that is left to do now is to define the view.

view : Signal.Address Action -> Model -> Html
view address model =
  let counters = List.map (viewCounter address) model.counters
      remove = button [ onClick address Remove ] [ text "Remove" ]
      insert = button [ onClick address Insert ] [ text "Add" ]
  in
      div [] ([remove, insert] ++ counters)

viewCounter : Signal.Address Action -> (ID, Counter.Model) -> Html
viewCounter address (id, model) =
  Counter.view (Signal.forwardTo address (Modify id)) model

The fun part here is the viewCounter function. It uses the same old Counter.view function, but in this case we provide a forwarding address that annotates all messages with the ID of the particular counter that is getting rendered.

When we create the actual view function, we map viewCounter over all of our counters and create add and remove buttons that report to the address directly.

This ID trick can be used any time you want a dynamic number of subcomponents. Counters are very simple, but the pattern would work exactly the same if you had a list of user profiles or tweets or newsfeed items or product details.

Example 4: A Fancier List of Counters

demo / see code

Okay, keeping things simple and modular on a dynamic list of counters is pretty cool, but instead of a general remove button, what if each counter had its own specific remove button? Surely that will mess things up!

Nah, it works.

In this case our goals mean that we need a new way to view a Counter that adds a remove button. Interestingly, we can keep the view function from before and add a new viewWithRemoveButton function that provides a slightly different view of our underlying Model. This is pretty cool. We do not need to duplicate any code or do any crazy subtyping or overloading. We just add a new function to the public API to expose new functionality!

module Counter (Model, init, Action, update, view, viewWithRemoveButton, Context) where

...

type alias Context =
    { actions : Signal.Address Action
    , remove : Signal.Address ()
    }

viewWithRemoveButton : Context -> Model -> Html
viewWithRemoveButton context model =
  div []
    [ button [ onClick context.actions Decrement ] [ text "-" ]
    , div [ countStyle ] [ text (toString model) ]
    , button [ onClick context.actions Increment ] [ text "+" ]
    , div [ countStyle ] []
    , button [ onClick context.remove () ] [ text "X" ]
    ]

The viewWithRemoveButton function adds one extra button. Notice that the increment/decrement buttons send messages to the actions address but the delete button sends messages to the remove address. The messages we send along to remove are essentially saying, “hey, whoever owns me, remove me!” It is up to whoever owns this particular counter to do the removing.

Now that we have our new viewWithRemoveButton, we can create a CounterList module which puts all the individual counters together. The Model is the same as in example 3: a list of counters and a unique ID.

type alias Model =
    { counters : List ( ID, Counter.Model )
    , nextID : ID
    }

type alias ID = Int

Our set of actions is a bit different. Instead of removing any old counter, we want to remove a specific one, so the Remove case now holds an ID.

type Action
    = Insert
    | Remove ID
    | Modify ID Counter.Action

The update function is pretty similar to example 3 as well.

update : Action -> Model -> Model
update action model =
  case action of
    Insert ->
      { model |
          counters = ( model.nextID, Counter.init 0 ) :: model.counters,
          nextID = model.nextID + 1
      }

    Remove id ->
      { model |
          counters = List.filter (\(counterID, _) -> counterID /= id) model.counters
      }

    Modify id counterAction ->
      let updateCounter (counterID, counterModel) =
            if counterID == id
                then (counterID, Counter.update counterAction counterModel)
                else (counterID, counterModel)
      in
          { model | counters = List.map updateCounter model.counters }

In the case of Remove, we take out the counter that has the ID we are supposed to remove. Otherwise, the cases are quite close to how they were before.

Finally, we put it all together in the view:

view : Signal.Address Action -> Model -> Html
view address model =
  let insert = button [ onClick address Insert ] [ text "Add" ]
  in
      div [] (insert :: List.map (viewCounter address) model.counters)

viewCounter : Signal.Address Action -> (ID, Counter.Model) -> Html
viewCounter address (id, model) =
  let context =
        Counter.Context
          (Signal.forwardTo address (Modify id))
          (Signal.forwardTo address (always (Remove id)))
  in
      Counter.viewWithRemoveButton context model

In our viewCounter function, we construct the Counter.Context to pass in all the necessary forwarding addresses. In both cases we annotate each Counter.Action so that we know which counter to modify or remove.

Big Lessons So Far

Basic Pattern — Everything is built around a Model, a way to update that model, and a way to view that model. Everything is a variation on this basic pattern.

Nesting Modules — Forwarding addresses makes it easy to nest our basic pattern, hiding implementation details entirely. We can nest this pattern arbitrarily deep, and each level only needs to know about what is going on one level lower.

Adding Context — Sometimes to update or view our model, extra information is needed. We can always add some Context to these functions and pass in all the additional information we need without complicating our Model.

update : Context -> Action -> Model -> Model
view : Context' -> Model -> Html

At every level of nesting we can derive the specific Context needed for each submodule.

Testing is Easy — All of the functions we have created are pure functions. That makes it extremely easy to test your update function. There is no special initialization or mocking or configuration step, you just call the function with the arguments you would like to test.

Example 5: Random GIF Viewer

demo / see code

So we have covered how to create infinitely nestable components, but what happens when we want to do an HTTP request from somewhere in there? Or talk to a database? This example starts using the elm-effects package to create a simple component that fetches random gifs from giphy.com with the topic “funny cats”.

As you look through the implementation, notice that it is pretty much the same code as the counter in example 1. The Model is very typical:

type alias Model =
    { topic : String
    , gifUrl : String
    }

We need to know what the topic of the finder is and what gifUrl we are showing right this second. The only new thing in this example is that init and update have slightly fancier types:

init : String -> (Model, Effects Action)

update : Action -> Model -> (Model, Effects Action)

Instead of returning just a new Model we also give back some effects that we would like to run. So we will be using the Effects API, which looks something like this:

module Effects where

type Effects a

none : Effects a
  -- don't do anything

task : Task Never a -> Effects a
  -- request a task, do HTTP and database stuff

The Effects type is essentially a data structure holding a bunch of independent tasks that will get run at some later point. Let’s get a better feeling of how this works by checking out how update works in this example:

type Action
    = RequestMore
    | NewGif (Maybe String)


update : Action -> Model -> (Model, Effects Action)
update msg model =
  case msg of
    RequestMore ->
      ( model
      , getRandomGif model.topic
      )

    NewGif maybeUrl ->
      ( Model model.topic (Maybe.withDefault model.gifUrl maybeUrl)
      , Effects.none
      )

-- getRandomGif : String -> Effects Action

So the user can trigger a RequestMore action by clicking the “More Please!” button, and when the server responds it will give us a NewGif action. We handle both these scenarios in our update function.

In the case of RequestMore first return the existing model. The user just clicked a button, there is nothing to change right now. We also create an Effects Action using the getRandomGif function. We will get to how getRandomGif is defined soon. For now we just need to know that when an Effects Action is run, it will produce a bunch of Action values that will be routed throughout the application. So getRandomGif model.topic will eventually result in an action like this:

NewGif (Just "http://s3.amazonaws.com/giphygifs/media/ka1aeBvFCSLD2/giphy.gif")

It returns a Maybe because the request to the server may fail. That Action will get fed right back into our update function. So when we take the NewGif route we just update the current gifUrl if possible. If the request failed, we just stick with the current model.gifUrl.

We see the same kind of thing happening in init which defines the initial model and asks for a GIF in the correct topic from giphy.com’s API.

init : String -> (Model, Effects Action)
init topic =
  ( Model topic "assets/waiting.gif"
  , getRandomGif topic
  )

-- getRandomGif : String -> Effects Action

Again, when the random GIF effect is complete, it will produce an Action that gets routed to our update function.

Note: So far we have been using the StartApp.Simple module from the start-app package, but now upgrade to the StartApp module. It is able to handle the complexity of more realistic web apps. It has a slightly fancier API. The crucial change is that it can handle our new init and update types.

One of the crucial aspects of this example is the getRandomGif function that actually describes how to get a random GIF. It uses tasks and the Http package, and I will try to give an overview of how these things are being used as we go. Let’s look at the definition:

getRandomGif : String -> Effects Action
getRandomGif topic =
  Http.get decodeImageUrl (randomUrl topic)
    |> Task.toMaybe
    |> Task.map NewGif
    |> Effects.task

-- The first line there created an HTTP GET request. It tries to
-- get some JSON at `randomUrl topic` and decodes the result
-- with `decodeImageUrl`. Both are defined below!
--
-- Next we use `Task.toMaybe` to capture any potential failures and
-- apply the `NewGif` tag to turn the result into a `Action`.
-- Finally we turn it into an `Effects` value that can be used in our
-- `init` or `update` functions.


-- Given a topic, construct a URL for the giphy API.
randomUrl : String -> String
randomUrl topic =
  Http.url "http://api.giphy.com/v1/gifs/random"
    [ "api_key" => "dc6zaTOxFJmzC"
    , "tag" => topic
    ]


-- A JSON decoder that takes a big chunk of JSON spit out by
-- giphy and extracts the string at `json.data.image_url` 
decodeImageUrl : Json.Decoder String
decodeImageUrl =
  Json.at ["data", "image_url"] Json.string

Once we have written this up, we are able to reuse getRandomGif in our init and update functions.

One of the interesting things about the task returned by getRandomGif is that it can Never fail. The idea is that any potential failure must be handled explicitly. We do not want any tasks failing silently.

I am going to try to explain exactly how that works, but it is not crucial to get every piece of this to use things! Okay, so every Task has a failure type and a success type. For example, an HTTP task may have a type like this Task Http.Error String such that we can fail with an Http.Error or succeed with a String. This makes it nice to chain a bunch of tasks together without worrying too much about errors. Now lets say our component requests a task, but the task fails. What happens then? Who gets notified? How do we recover? By making the failure type Never we force any potential errors into the success type such that they can be handled explicitly by the component. In our case, we use Task.toMaybe : Task x a -> Task y (Maybe a) so our update function must explicitly handle HTTP failures. This means tasks cannot silently fail, you always handle potential errors explicitly.

Example 6: Pair of random GIF viewers

demo / see code

Alright, effects can be done, but what about nested effects? Did you think about that?! This example reuses the exact code from the GIF viewer in example 5 to create a pair of independent GIF viewers.

As you look through the implementation, notice that it is pretty much the same code as the pair of counters in example 2. The Model is defined as two RandomGif.Model values:

type alias Model =
    { left : RandomGif.Model
    , right : RandomGif.Model
    }

This lets us keep track of each independently. Our actions are just routing messages to the appropriate subcomponent.

type Action
    = Left RandomGif.Action
    | Right RandomGif.Action

The interesting thing is that we actually use the Left and Right tags a bit in our update and init functions.

-- Effects.map : (a -> b) -> Effects a -> Effects b

update : Action -> Model -> (Model, Effects Action)
update action model =
  case action of
    Left msg ->
      let
        (left, fx) = RandomGif.update msg model.left
      in
        ( Model left model.right
        , Effects.map Left fx
        )

    Right msg ->
      let
        (right, fx) = RandomGif.update msg model.right
      in
        ( Model model.left right
        , Effects.map Right fx
        )

So in each branch we call the RandomGif.update function which is returning a new model and some effects we are calling fx. We return an updated model like normal, but we need to do some extra work on our effects. Instead of returning them directly, we use Effects.map function to turn them into the same kind of Action. This works very much like Signal.forwardTo, letting us tag the values to make it clear how they should be routed.

The same thing happens in the init function. We provide a topic for each random GIF viewer and get back an initial model and some effects.

init : String -> String -> (Model, Effects Action)
init leftTopic rightTopic =
  let
    (left, leftFx) = RandomGif.init leftTopic
    (right, rightFx) = RandomGif.init rightTopic
  in
    ( Model left right
    , Effects.batch
        [ Effects.map Left leftFx
        , Effects.map Right rightFx
        ]
    )

-- Effects.batch : List (Effects a) -> Effects a

In this case we not only use Effects.map to tag results appropriately, we also use the Effects.batch function to lump them all together. All of the requested tasks will get spawned off and run independently, so the left and right effects will be in progress at the same time.

Example 7: List of random GIF viewers

demo / see code

This example lets you have a list of random GIF viewers where you can create the topics yourself. Again, we reuse the core RandomGif module exactly as is.

When you look through the implementation you will see that it exactly corresponds to example 3. We put all of our submodels in a list associated with an ID and do our operations based on those IDs. The only thing new is that we are using Effects in the init and update function, putting them together with Effects.map and Effects.batch.

Please open an issue if this section should go into more detail about how things work!

Example 8: Animation

demo / see code

Now we have seen components with tasks that can be nested in arbitrary ways, but how does it work for animation?

Interestingly, it is pretty much exactly the same! (Or perhaps it is no longer surprising that the same pattern as in all the other examples works here too... Seems like a pretty good pattern!)

This example is a pair of clickable squares. When you click a square, it rotates 90 degrees. Overall the code is an adapted form of example 2 and example 6 where we keep all the logic for animation in SpinSquare.elm which we then reuse multiple times in SpinSquarePair.elm.

So all the new and interesting stuff is happening in SpinSquare, so we are going to focus on that code. The first thing we need is a model:

type alias Model =
    { angle : Float
    , animationState : AnimationState
    }


type alias AnimationState =
    Maybe { prevClockTime : Time,  elapsedTime: Time }


rotateStep = 90
duration = second

So our core model is the angle that the square is currently at and then some animationState to track what is going on with any ongoing animation. If there is no animation it is Nothing, but if something is happening it holds:

• prevClockTime — The most recent clock time which we will use for calculating time diffs. It will help us know exactly how many milliseconds have passed since last frame.
• elapsedTime — A number between 0 and duration that tells us how far we are in the animation.

The rotateStep constant is just declaring how far it turns on each click. You can mess with that and everything should keep working.

Now the interesting stuff all happens in update:

type Action
    = Spin
    | Tick Time


update : Action -> Model -> (Model, Effects Action)
update msg model =
  case msg of
    Spin ->
      case model.animationState of
        Nothing ->
          ( model, Effects.tick Tick )

        Just _ ->
          ( model, Effects.none )

    Tick clockTime ->
      let
        newElapsedTime =
          case model.animationState of
            Nothing ->
              0

            Just {elapsedTime, prevClockTime} ->
              elapsedTime + (clockTime - prevClockTime)
      in
        if newElapsedTime > duration then
          ( { angle = model.angle + rotateStep
            , animationState = Nothing
            }
          , Effects.none
          )
        else
          ( { angle = model.angle
            , animationState = Just { elapsedTime = newElapsedTime, prevClockTime = clockTime }
            }
          , Effects.tick Tick
          )

There are two kinds of Action we need to handle:

• Spin indicates that a user clicked the shape, requesting a spin. So in the update function, we request a clock tick if there is no animation going and just let things stay as is if one is already going.
• Tick indicates that we have gotten a clock tick so we need to take an animation step. In the update function this means we need to update our animationState. So first we check if there is an animation in progress. If so, we just figure out what the newElapsedTime is by taking the current elapsedTime and adding a time diff to it. If the now elapsed time is greater than duration we stop animating and stop requesting new clock ticks. Otherwise we update the animation state and request another clock tick.

Again, I think we can cut this code down as we write more code like this and start seeing the general pattern. Should be exciting to find!

Finally we have a somewhat interesting view function! This example gets a nice bouncy animation, but we are just incrementing our elapsedTime in linear chunks. How is that happening?

The view code itself is totally standard elm-svg to make some fancier clickable shapes. The cool part of the view code is toOffset which calculates the rotation offset for the current AnimationState.

-- import Easing exposing (ease, easeOutBounce, float)

toOffset : AnimationState -> Float
toOffset animationState =
  case animationState of
    Nothing ->
      0

    Just {elapsedTime} ->
      ease easeOutBounce float 0 rotateStep duration elapsedTime

We are using @Dandandan’s easing package which makes it easy to do all sorts of cool easings on numbers, colors, points, and any other crazy thing you want.

So the ease function is taking a number between 0 and duration. It then turns that into a number between 0 and rotateStep which we set to 90 degrees up at the top of our program. You also provide an easing. In our case we gave easeOutBounce which means as we slide from 0 to duration, we will get a number between 0 and 90 with that easing added. Pretty crazy! Try swapping easeOutBounce out for other easings and see how it looks!

From here, we wire everything together in SpinSquarePair, but that code is pretty much exactly the same as in example 2 and example 6.

Okay, so that is the basics of doing animation with this library! It is not clear if we nailed everything here, so let us know how things go as you get more experience. Hopefully we can make it even easier!

Note: I expect we can build some abstractions on top of the core ideas here. This example does some lower level stuff, but I bet we can find some nice patterns to make this easier as we work with it more. If you find it weird now, try to make something better and tell us about it!