erratum 24077

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@@ -145,7 +145,7 @@
 </media>
 <caption>A stained preparation of <emphasis effect="italics">Bacillus subtilis</emphasis> showing endospores as green and the vegetative cells as pink. (credit: modification of work by American Society for Microbiology)</caption>
 </figure>
-<para id="fs-id1167793479007">Endospore-staining techniques are important for identifying <emphasis effect="italics">Bacillus</emphasis> and <emphasis effect="italics">Clostridium</emphasis>, two genera of endospore-producing bacteria that contain clinically significant species. Among others, <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00047"><emphasis effect="italics">B. anthracis</emphasis></term> (which causes <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00048">anthrax</term>) has been of particular interest because of concern that its spores could be used as a bioterrorism agent. <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00049"><emphasis effect="italics">C. difficile</emphasis></term> is a particularly important species responsible for the typically hospital-acquired infection known as “C. diff.”</para>
+<para id="fs-id1167793479007">Endospore-staining techniques are important for identifying <emphasis effect="italics">Bacillus</emphasis>, <emphasis effect="italics">Clostridium</emphasis>, and <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00066"><emphasis effect="italics">Clostridioides</emphasis></term>, three genera of endospore-producing bacteria that contain clinically significant species. Among others, <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00047"><emphasis effect="italics">B. anthracis</emphasis></term> (which causes <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00048">anthrax</term>) has been of particular interest because of concern that its spores could be used as a bioterrorism agent. <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00049"><emphasis effect="italics">Clostridioides difficile</emphasis></term> is a particularly important species responsible for the typically hospital-acquired infection known as “C. diff.”</para>
 <note id="fs-id1167793621114" class="microbiology check-your-understanding">
 <list id="fs-id1167794100281">
 <item>Is endospore staining an example of positive, negative, or differential staining?</item>

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@@ -140,7 +140,7 @@
 <caption>(a) Sporulation begins following asymmetric cell division. The forespore becomes surrounded by a double layer of membrane, a cortex, and a protein coat, before being released as a mature endospore upon disintegration of the mother cell. (b) An electron micrograph of a <emphasis effect="italics">Carboxydothermus hydrogenoformans</emphasis> endospore. (c) These <emphasis effect="italics">Bacillus spp.</emphasis> cells are undergoing sporulation. The endospores have been visualized using Malachite Green stain. (credit b: modification of work by Jonathan Eisen)</caption>
 </figure>
 <para id="fs-id1172101731034">Endospores of certain species have been shown to persist in a dormant state for extended periods of time, up to thousands of years.<footnote id="fs-id1172099587748">F. Rothfuss, M Bender, R Conrad. “Survival and Activity of Bacteria in a Deep, Aged Lake Sediment (Lake Constance).” <emphasis effect="italics">Microbial Ecology</emphasis> 33 no. 1 (1997):69–77.</footnote> However, when living conditions improve, endospores undergo <term id="term-00031">germination</term>, reentering a vegetative state. After germination, the cell becomes metabolically active again and is able to carry out all of its normal functions, including growth and cell division.</para>
-<para id="fs-id1172102112392">Not all bacteria have the ability to form endospores; however, there are a number of clinically significant endospore-forming gram-positive bacteria of the genera <emphasis effect="italics">Bacillus</emphasis> and <emphasis effect="italics">Clostridium</emphasis>. These include <emphasis effect="italics">B. anthracis</emphasis>, the causative agent of <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00032">anthrax</term>, which produces endospores capable of surviving for many decades<footnote id="fs-id1172101727363">R. Sinclair et al. “Persistence of Category A Select Agents in the Environment.” <emphasis effect="italics">Applied and Environmental Microbiology</emphasis> 74 no. 3 (2008):555–563.</footnote>; <emphasis effect="italics">C. tetani</emphasis> (causes <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00033">tetanus</term>); <emphasis effect="italics">C. difficile</emphasis> (causes pseudomembranous <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00034">colitis</term>); <emphasis effect="italics">C. perfringens</emphasis> (causes <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00035">gas gangrene</term>); and <emphasis effect="italics">C. botulinum</emphasis> (causes <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00036">botulism</term>). Pathogens such as these are particularly difficult to combat because their endospores are so hard to kill. Special sterilization methods for endospore-forming bacteria are discussed in <link document="m58852">Control of Microbial Growth</link>.</para>
+<para id="fs-id1172102112392">Not all bacteria have the ability to form endospores; however, there are a number of clinically significant endospore-forming gram-positive bacteria of the genera <emphasis effect="italics">Bacillus</emphasis> and <emphasis effect="italics">Clostridium</emphasis>. These include <emphasis effect="italics">B. anthracis</emphasis>, the causative agent of <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00032">anthrax</term>, which produces endospores capable of surviving for many decades<footnote id="fs-id1172101727363">R. Sinclair et al. “Persistence of Category A Select Agents in the Environment.” <emphasis effect="italics">Applied and Environmental Microbiology</emphasis> 74 no. 3 (2008):555–563.</footnote>; <emphasis effect="italics">C. tetani</emphasis> (causes <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00033">tetanus</term>); <emphasis effect="italics">C. perfringens</emphasis> (causes <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00035">gas gangrene</term>); and <emphasis effect="italics">C. botulinum</emphasis> (causes <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00036">botulism</term>). <emphasis effect="italics">Clostridioides difficile</emphasis> is a distant relative causing <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00034">pseudomembranous colitis</term>. Pathogens such as these are particularly difficult to combat because their endospores are so hard to kill. Special sterilization methods for endospore-forming bacteria are discussed in <link document="m58852">Control of Microbial Growth</link>.</para>
 <note id="fs-id1172101812545" class="microbiology check-your-understanding">
 <list id="fs-id1172100563267" list-type="bulleted" bullet-style="bullet">
 <item>What is an inclusion?</item>

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@@ -135,12 +135,12 @@
 <section id="fs-id1172098389550">
 <title>Clostridia</title>
 <para id="fs-id1172101009843">One large and diverse class of <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00032">low G+C gram-positive bacteria</term> is Clostridia. The best studied genus of this class is <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00033"><emphasis effect="italics">Clostridium</emphasis></term>. These rod-shaped bacteria are generally obligate anaerobes that produce endospores and can be found in anaerobic habitats like soil and aquatic sediments rich in organic nutrients. The endospores may survive for many years.</para>
-<para id="fs-id1172100534751"><emphasis effect="italics">Clostridium</emphasis> spp. produce more kinds of protein toxins than any other bacterial genus, and several species are human pathogens. <emphasis effect="italics">C. perfringens</emphasis> is the third most common cause of food poisoning in the United States and is the causative agent of an even more serious disease called <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00034">gas gangrene</term>. Gas gangrene occurs when <emphasis effect="italics">C. perfringens</emphasis> endospores enter a wound and germinate, becoming viable bacterial cells and producing a toxin that can cause the necrosis (death) of tissue. <emphasis effect="italics">C. tetani</emphasis>, which causes <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00035">tetanus</term>, produces a neurotoxin that is able to enter neurons, travel to regions of the central nervous system where it blocks the inhibition of nerve impulses involved in muscle contractions, and cause a life-threatening spastic paralysis. <emphasis effect="italics">C. botulinum</emphasis> produces <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00036">botulinum neurotoxin</term>, the most lethal biological toxin known. Botulinum toxin is responsible for rare but frequently fatal cases of <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00037">botulism</term>. The toxin blocks the release of acetylcholine in neuromuscular junctions, causing flaccid paralysis. In very small concentrations, botulinum toxin has been used to treat muscle pathologies in humans and in a cosmetic procedure to eliminate wrinkles. <emphasis effect="italics">C. difficile</emphasis> is a common source of hospital-acquired infections (<link target-id="OSC_Microbio_04_04_Clostridia"/>) that can result in serious and even fatal cases of colitis (inflammation of the large intestine). Infections often occur in patients who are immunosuppressed or undergoing antibiotic therapy that alters the normal microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract. <link target-id="fs-id1167658337987" document="m58949">Appendix D</link> lists the genera, species, and related diseases for Clostridia.</para>
+<para id="fs-id1172100534751"><emphasis effect="italics">Clostridium</emphasis> spp. produce more kinds of protein toxins than any other bacterial genus, and several species are human pathogens. <emphasis effect="italics">C. perfringens</emphasis> is the third most common cause of food poisoning in the United States and is the causative agent of an even more serious disease called <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00034">gas gangrene</term>. Gas gangrene occurs when <emphasis effect="italics">C. perfringens</emphasis> endospores enter a wound and germinate, becoming viable bacterial cells and producing a toxin that can cause the necrosis (death) of tissue. <emphasis effect="italics">C. tetani</emphasis>, which causes <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00035">tetanus</term>, produces a neurotoxin that is able to enter neurons, travel to regions of the central nervous system where it blocks the inhibition of nerve impulses involved in muscle contractions, and cause a life-threatening spastic paralysis. <emphasis effect="italics">C. botulinum</emphasis> produces <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00036">botulinum neurotoxin</term>, the most lethal biological toxin known. Botulinum toxin is responsible for rare but frequently fatal cases of <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00037">botulism</term>. The toxin blocks the release of acetylcholine in neuromuscular junctions, causing flaccid paralysis. In very small concentrations, botulinum toxin has been used to treat muscle pathologies in humans and in a cosmetic procedure to eliminate wrinkles. <emphasis effect="italics">Clostridioides difficile</emphasis> is a common source of hospital-acquired infections (<link target-id="OSC_Microbio_04_04_Clostridia"/>) that can result in serious and even fatal cases of colitis (inflammation of the large intestine). Infections often occur in patients who are immunosuppressed or undergoing antibiotic therapy that alters the normal microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract. <link target-id="fs-id1167658337987" document="m58949">Appendix D</link> lists the genera, species, and related diseases for Clostridia.</para>
 <figure id="OSC_Microbio_04_04_Clostridia">
 <media id="fs-id1172100594391" alt="A micrograph of many rod shaped cells.">
 <image mime-type="image/jpeg" src="../../media/OSC_Microbio_04_04_Clostridia.jpg"/>
 </media>
-<caption><term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00038"><emphasis effect="italics">Clostridium difficile</emphasis></term>, a gram-positive, rod-shaped bacterium, causes severe colitis and diarrhea, often after the normal gut microbiota is eradicated by antibiotics. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)</caption>
+<caption><term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00038"><emphasis effect="italics">Clostridioides difficile</emphasis></term>, a gram-positive, rod-shaped bacterium, causes severe colitis and diarrhea, often after the normal gut microbiota is eradicated by antibiotics. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)</caption>
 </figure>
 </section>
 <section id="fs-id1172100500548">
@@ -207,7 +207,7 @@
 <row valign="top">
 <entry valign="top" align="left"><term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00074"><emphasis effect="italics">Clostridium</emphasis></term></entry>
 <entry valign="top" align="left">Gram-positive bacillus</entry>
-<entry valign="top" align="left">Strict anaerobes; form endospores; all known species are pathogenic, causing tetanus, gas gangrene, botulism, and colitis</entry>
+<entry valign="top" align="left">Strict anaerobes; form endospores; all known species are pathogenic, causing tetanus, gas gangrene, and botulism</entry>
 </row>
 <row valign="top">
 <entry valign="top" align="left"><term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00075"><emphasis effect="italics">Enterococcus</emphasis></term></entry>

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 </media>
 <caption>Diagram of bacterial cell distribution in thioglycolate tubes.</caption>
 </figure>
-<para id="fs-id1172098394815">Many obligate anaerobes are found in the environment where anaerobic conditions exist, such as in deep sediments of soil, still waters, and at the bottom of the deep ocean where there is no photosynthetic life. Anaerobic conditions also exist naturally in the intestinal tract of animals. Obligate anaerobes, mainly <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00016"><emphasis effect="italics">Bacteroidetes</emphasis></term>, represent a large fraction of the microbes in the human gut. Transient anaerobic conditions exist when tissues are not supplied with blood circulation; they die and become an ideal breeding ground for obligate anaerobes. Another type of obligate anaerobe encountered in the human body is the gram-positive, rod-shaped <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00017"><emphasis effect="italics">Clostridium</emphasis></term> spp. Their ability to form endospores allows them to survive in the presence of oxygen. One of the major causes of health-acquired infections is <emphasis effect="italics">C. difficile</emphasis>, known as C. diff. Prolonged use of antibiotics for other infections increases the probability of a patient developing a secondary <emphasis effect="italics">C. difficile</emphasis> infection. Antibiotic treatment disrupts the balance of microorganisms in the intestine and allows the colonization of the gut by <emphasis effect="italics">C. difficile</emphasis>, causing a significant inflammation of the colon.</para>
+<para id="fs-id1172098394815">Many obligate anaerobes are found in the environment where anaerobic conditions exist, such as in deep sediments of soil, still waters, and at the bottom of the deep ocean where there is no photosynthetic life. Anaerobic conditions also exist naturally in the intestinal tract of animals. Obligate anaerobes, mainly <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00016"><emphasis effect="italics">Bacteroidetes</emphasis></term>, represent a large fraction of the microbes in the human gut. Transient anaerobic conditions exist when tissues are not supplied with blood circulation; they die and become an ideal breeding ground for obligate anaerobes. Another type of obligate anaerobe encountered in the human body is the gram-positive, rod-shaped <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00017"><emphasis effect="italics">Clostridioides</emphasis></term> and <emphasis effect="italics"><term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00038">Clostridium</term></emphasis> spp. Their ability to form endospores allows them to survive in the presence of oxygen. One of the major causes of health-acquired infections is <emphasis effect="italics">C. difficile</emphasis>, known as C. diff. Prolonged use of antibiotics for other infections increases the probability of a patient developing a secondary <emphasis effect="italics">C. difficile</emphasis> infection. Antibiotic treatment disrupts the balance of microorganisms in the intestine and allows the colonization of the gut by <emphasis effect="italics">Clostridioides difficile</emphasis>, causing a significant inflammation of the colon.</para>
 <para id="fs-id1172101005919">Other clostridia responsible for serious infections include <emphasis effect="italics">C. tetani</emphasis>, the agent of tetanus, and <emphasis effect="italics">C. perfringens</emphasis>, which causes <term class="no-emphasis" id="term-00018">gas gangrene</term>. In both cases, the infection starts in necrotic tissue (dead tissue that is not supplied with oxygen by blood circulation). This is the reason that deep puncture wounds are associated with tetanus. When tissue death is accompanied by lack of circulation, gangrene is always a danger.</para>
 <para id="fs-id1172096331915">The study of obligate anaerobes requires special equipment. Obligate anaerobic bacteria must be grown under conditions devoid of oxygen. The most common approach is culture in an <term id="term-00019">anaerobic jar</term> (<link target-id="OSC_Microbio_09_02_jar"/>). Anaerobic jars include chemical packs that remove oxygen and release carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>). An <term id="term-00020">anaerobic chamber</term> is an enclosed box from which all oxygen is removed. Gloves sealed to openings in the box allow handling of the cultures without exposing the culture to air (<link target-id="OSC_Microbio_09_02_jar"/>).</para>
 <figure id="OSC_Microbio_09_02_jar">